White shark - FISH

White shark, (Carcharodon carcharias), also called great white shark or white pointer, any member of the largest species of the mackerel sharks (Lamnidae) and one of the most powerful and potentially dangerous predatory sharks in the world. Starring as the villain of movies such as Jaws (1975), the white shark is much maligned and publicly feared; however, surprisingly little is understood of its life and behaviour. According to the fossil record, the modern species has been around since roughly 18–12 million years ago, during the middle of the Miocene Epoch, but its ancestors may date back to at least the Eocene Epoch (about 56–34 million years ago).

General Features
Evolution
Early authorities maintained that white sharks are descended from the extinct Carcharocles megalodon, the largest shark in the fossil record, which grew to more than 13.7 metres (45 feet) in length. From tooth marks on fossil bones, C. megalodon is thought to have fed on large whales. In contrast, modern white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) do not exceed 6.4 metres (21 feet) in length and weigh more than 3,300 kg (7,300 pounds). New paleontological evidence, however, suggests that the white shark descends from a line of ancient mako sharks (Isurus [Cosmopolitodus] hastalis), which had more dental characters in common with modern white sharks than with C. megalodon.

Distribution
White shark populations are frequently centred in highly productive temperate coastal waters (that is, waters characterized by an abundance of fishes and marine mammals), such as off the coasts of the northeastern and western United States, Chile, northern Japan, southern Australia, New Zealand, southern Africa, and the Mediterranean. Some individual white sharks may travel far out to sea or into tropical waters, but field studies show that most return to these temperate feeding areas each year.

Body structure
White sharks are large, bulky fishes with a body shaped like a blunt torpedo. They also have a sharply pointed conical snout, large pectoral and dorsal fins, and a strong crescent-shaped tail. Only the belly of white sharks is whitish. They have a contrasting pattern of dark blue, gray, or brown on their back and sides. C. carcharias is an amazing hunter armed with strong muscles, good eyesight, and a keen sense of smell. A complex circulatory system conserves heat generated through the contraction of swimming muscles. This heat is distributed throughout the body and gives the white shark a body temperature that is higher than the surrounding water. This allows the animal to be active in water that may be too cold for other species of predatory sharks. In addition, its massive jaws are armed with large, sharply pointed, and coarsely serrated teeth. Each tooth is designed to cut flesh and can easily puncture and shatter bone.

Behaviour
Feeding habits
Newborn white sharks feed on fishes and other sharks. As they reach adulthood, their prey includes sea turtles, seals, sea lions, porpoises, dolphins, and small whales. Prey is usually hunted by ambush, where the shark will attempt to rush the animal by surprise and inflict a sudden and massive fatal bite. Often this initial rush is so strong that the intense impact may send the prey out of the water or will send the shark into the air if it misses the target. The sharks will retire and wait for the prey to quickly die, giving rise to the terms bite and spit or bite and wait for this method of attack. White sharks are also opportunistic scavengers and will feed on the carcasses of whales and basking sharks; however, they are not indiscriminate.

Attacks on humans
In the areas where they are most common, white sharks are responsible for numerous unprovoked, and sometimes fatal, attacks on swimmers, divers, surfers, kayakers, and even small boats. A white shark tends to inflict a single bite on its human victim and then retreat. In many instances, however, the shark rarely returns for a second bite. If the victim suffers a moderate bite, he or she may have time to seek safety. In situations where a large bite occurs, however, serious tissue and organ damage may result in the death of the victim. A review of white shark attacks off the western United States showed that about 7 percent of attacks were fatal, but data from other localities, such as South Africa, show fatality rates of more than 20 percent. Fatality rates as high as 60 percent have been recorded from attacks in the waters off Australia.

Many researchers maintain that attacks on humans stem from the shark’s curiosity. In contrast, other authorities contend that these attacks may be the result of the shark mistaking humans for its natural prey, such as seals and sea lions. It is also possible that white sharks intend to attack humans where their normal prey may be scarce.

Social behaviour
Little is known about the social behaviour and natural history of the white shark. There appears to be no apparent social structure; however, there is evidence that some sharks may be territorial and assume dominance hierarchies around feeding areas. White sharks are largely solitary, but some pairs have been seen to travel together and associate for long periods of time. Some individuals may reside within feeding areas throughout the year, whereas other individuals may leave the feeding area and migrate widely. For example, some white sharks off California have been tracked to Hawaii, and some South African white sharks have been tracked to southern Australia and back.

Reproduction
Mating has yet to be fully documented in white sharks, but it is assumed to be similar to internal fertilization in most sharks—that is, the male inserts his claspers into the cloaca of the female. Courtship behaviour, if there is any, is unknown. Male white sharks reach sexual maturity at 3.5 to 4 metres (about 11.5 to 13 feet) in length and about 10 years of age, whereas females reach sexual maturity at 4.5 to 5 metres (about 15 to 16 feet) in length and 12 to 18 years of age. Reproduction is viviparous (that is, fertilized eggs are retained within the body). Prior to birth, the young in the womb may feed on undeveloped eggs and possibly their unborn siblings. Litters consist of 2 to 10 pups; the newborns are more than 1 metre (about 3.3 feet) in length. Gestation is thought to take about 12 months, and females are assumed to give birth in warm temperate and subtropical waters, but specific nursery areas are unknown.

Ecology
Role in marine food chains
As top predators in marine food chains, white sharks have few natural enemies. While it is true that young white sharks are sometimes eaten by larger sharks (including other white sharks), they have fewer potential enemies as they grow. Adult white sharks fear few other animals; however, in at least one documented instance, an adult killer whale (Orcinus orca) attacked and killed an adult white shark. The most profound enemies of the white shark are human beings.

Conservation
Humans hunt white sharks for a variety of reasons. They are a good food fish, and they are caught and sold commercially in many countries. Because of their impressive size and fabled ferocity, they are also highly prized sport fish, and their teeth are often treasured as jewelry. In addition, the jaws of large individuals can fetch thousands of dollars.

White sharks are widespread. However, they are not common. They fill an important niche as a top predator and may help to keep populations of marine mammals in balance. Since they are positioned at the top of the food chain, they are never abundant. As a result, the removal of a few individuals can have a profound effect on the population. Since they grow slowly and produce few young, it takes a long time for populations to rebound, and harvesting has depleted populations of these sharks in many areas. Consequently, white sharks are legally protected in several places (such as Australia, South Africa, and California) despite their bad reputation. The protection of white sharks may even have economic benefits. For example, in waters that contain white sharks, boaters and dive operators earn tens of thousands of dollars yearly by featuring popular “shark dives” where guests can see white sharks from the safety of steel cages suspended in the water. Such a change in image from wanton killer to majestic predator may assure the future survival of white sharks.