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The landscape of Italy transformed during the late Middle Ages, becoming a patchwork of independent kingdoms and city-states that ultimately sparked the Renaissance. Originating in Florence, this cultural rebirth spread throughout Europe, ushering in unparalleled advancements in painting, architecture, literature, philosophy, and science.
Despite the cultural flourishing, foreign dominance marked the Italian territories at the end of the 15th century, exacerbated by the Italian Wars. The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis saw much of Italy fall under the control of the House of Habsburg. The Napoleonic era brought further invasions, culminating in the establishment of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. However, the Congress of Vienna later reverted Italy's borders to their pre-Napoleonic state.