interest, and there have been periodic explosions of interest in the use of such approaches to
assist human decision-making (e.g., in the context of early-stage expert systems to guide medical
diagnosis), the symbolic systems approach has been heavily criticized for its inability to
meaningfully impact real-world processes in a scalable way. It is of course possible that this
field will see breakthroughs in the future, but it is fair to say that, while symbolic systems
continues to be an area of academic research, it has not been central to the commercial
application of AI. Nor is it at the heart of the recent reported advances in AI that are associated
with the area of machine learning and prediction.
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